Nuclide Information

TRITIUM

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 12.4 years

Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions: Beta

Maximum beta energy: 18.6 keV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

ALI = 1x10⁹Bq (Oral ingestion & Inhalation)

Maximum range in air = 6 mm

Shielding material: None
   

Dosimetry: Milicurie quantities of tritium do not present an external exposure hazard. The critical organ for tritium uptake is the whole body water (3-4 hours after intake, tritiated water is uniformly distributed in all body water. On average tritiated water is eliminated with 10-day biological half-life. Elimination rate may be increased by increasing the water intake.

TLD required: none
 

Special precautions: Many T compounds readily penetrate gloves and skin. Handle these compounds remotely, wear two pairs of gloves and change the outer pair every 20 minutes.

CARBON-14

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 5730 years

Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions: Beta

Maximum beta energy: 156 keV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

ALI:

• Oral ingestion = 3x10⁷Bq
• Inhalation:
• Carbon Monoxide = 3x10⁹Bq
• Carbon Dioxide = 3x10¹⁰Bq
• Carbon Compounds = 3x10⁷Bq

Shielding material: None 
 

Dosimetry: Milicurie quantities of C-14 do not present an external exposure hazard. The critical organ for uptake of many C-14 labeled carbonates is the bone, and for many other compounds is the body fat. Biological half lives from few minutes to 35 days (depending on the compound).

TLD required: none
 

Special precautions: Some C-14 compounds may penetrate gloves and skin. Handle these compounds remotely, wear two pair of gloves and change the outer pair frequently. Special cautions should be taken when handling C-14 labeled halogenated acids. These compounds may be incorporated in the skin and give local dose commitments in the order of 0.1 to 1 Sv per microCi deposited (3 to 30 Sv per MBq).

SODIUM-22

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 2.6 years

Decay Mode: Electron Capture, Beta + 

Principal Emissions:

• Gamma; Positron (Beta +)

Positron energy: 0.546 MeV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Sodium Iodide (NaI) solid scintillation detector (Best Method)
• Geiger-Müller
• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

Shielding material: Lead, half value layer 6.4 mm
   

Dosimetry: Na-22 is an external exposure hazard. Unshielded exposure rate from 1 mCi point source at 10 cm is 1 mSv/hr. The critical organ for uptake of transportable compounds of Na-22 is the whole body. The lung and the lower large intestine are the critical organs for inhalation and ingestion of insoluble Na-22 compounds, respectively. Biological half life is 11 days.

TLD required: yes, badge and ring

Special precautions: Near an unshielded Na-22 source, dose rates due to beta radiation can be much higher that dose rates due to gamma radiation. Avoid direct eye exposure by interposing transparent shields or indirect viewing. Avoid skin exposure by remote handling and prompt removal of contaminated clothing. Multi hundred mCi quantities need to be completely surrounded by shielding material to prevent positrons from escaping and creating a source of secondary annihilation radiation outside the shielding.

Na-24



 

PHOSPHORUS-32

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 14.3 days

Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions: Beta

Maximum Beta energy: 1.71 MeV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Geiger-Müller
• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

ALI: Oral ingestion = 2x10⁷Bq

• Inhalation = 1x10⁷Bq

Shielding material: Plexiglas
 
Dosimetry: The high beta energy emissions of P-32 can present a substantial externalexposure hazard.The bone is the critical organ for uptake   of transportable compounds of P-32. The lung and the lower large intestine are the critical organs for inhalation and ingestion of insoluble P-32 compounds, respectively. Phosphorus metabolism is complex: 30% is rapidly eliminated from the body, 40% has 19-day biological half life, and the rest is reduced by radioactive decay.
 

Special precautions: Near an unshielded 1 mCi P-32 source, dose rates due to beta radiation can be 260 mSv/hr. Avoid direct exposure by interposing transparent shields (lucite 1.3 cm). Never work over an open container with P-32. Multi mCi quantities can produce significant secondary radiation (x-ray) due to bremsstrahlung effect. In this case, 3-6 mm of lead need to be added the lucite shield. Avoid local high dose exposure by remote handling of large quantities and prompt removal of contaminated clothing or gloves.

PHOSPHORUS-33

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 25.34 days

Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions: Beta

Maximum Beta energy: 0.249 MeV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

ALI:

• Oral ingestion = 2x10⁸Bq
• Inhalation = 1x10⁸Bq

Shielding material: Plexiglas

Dosimetry: Milicurie quantities of P-33 do not present an externalexposure hazard.The bone is the critical organ for uptake  of transportable compounds of P-33. The lung and the lower large intestine are the critical organs for inhalation and ingestion of insoluble P-33 compounds, respectively. Phosphorus metabolism is complex: 30% is rapidly eliminated from the body, 40% has 19-day biological half life, and the rest is reduced by radioactive decay.
 

Special precautions: Avoid local high dose exposure by remote handling of large quantities and prompt removal of contaminated clothing or gloves.

SULPHUR-35

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 87.4 days

Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions: Beta

Maximum Beta energy: 0.167 MeV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

ALI:

• Oral ingestion = 2x10⁸Bq
• Inhalation:
• Vapour = 3.7x10⁸Bq
• Sulfites/Sulfides = 7x10⁷Bq

Shielding material: None

Dosimetry: Milicurie quantities of S-35 do not present an externalexposure hazard.The whole body is the critical organ for uptake  of S-35. The elimination rate depends of S-35 depends on chemical form. A conservative biological half life is 90 days.

Special Considerations for Open Sources: Care must be taken to avoid generating sulphur dioxide or hydrogen sulphide which could be inhaled. Radiolysis of S-35 amino acids during storage and use may lead to the release of S-35 labelled volatile impurities. Handle this material in a fume hood. Although the level of these impurities is small (typically less than 0.05%), contamination of the internal surfaces of storage and reaction vessels may occur. Therefore, all vials should be opened and used in a fume hood.
 

CHLORINE-36

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 3x10⁵years

Decay Modes:

• Beta - (98.2%) 
• Electron Capture - (1.8%)

Principal Emissions: Beta; Gamma

Maximum Beta energy: 0.709 MeV

Gamma energy: 0.511 MeV (intensity: £0.03%)

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Geiger-Müller
• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

ALI: Oral ingestion = 7x10⁷Bq

• Inhalation = 7x10⁶Bq

Shielding material: Plexiglas

Dosimetry: Milicurie quantities of Cl-36 can present an externalexposure hazard.The whole body is the critical organ for uptake  of transportable Cl-36 compounds. Sodium Chloride is removed from the body by urine with a 10 days biological half life. 29 days is a conservative biological half life for other transportable compounds. The lung and the lower large intestine are the critical organs for non-transportable Chlorine compounds, respectively.

Special Precautions: Do not work over opened containers. When working with mCi quantities consider the need of shielding with6 mm lucite. Avoid glove and skin contamination or ensure that is promptly detected and removed.

POTASSIUM-42

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 12.4 hours

Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions:

• Beta
• Gamma

• 3.6 MeV (81.90%)
• 2.0 MeV (17.64%)
• others £1.7 MeV (0.46%)

• 1.5 MeV (principal)
• others from 0.313 to 2.4 MeV

• Geiger-Müller
• Sodium Iodide (NaI) solid scintillation detector
• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

ALI = 2x10⁸Bq (Oral ingestion & Inhalation)

Maximum beta range in air = 13 m

Shielding material: Lead; half value layer = 1.6 cm.
 
 

CALCIUM-45

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 163 days

Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions: Beta

Maximum Beta energy: 0.257 MeV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter
• Geiger-Müller

ALI:

• Oral ingestion = 7x10⁷Bq
• Inhalation = 3x10⁷Bq

Shielding material: Plexiglas
 
Dosimetry: Milicurie quantities of Ca-45 do not present a significant externalexposure hazard.The bone is the critical organ for uptake   of Ca-45 compounds. The metabolism of Calcium is complex. The majority is deposited in the bone and is retained with a long biological half life (18000 days). A smaller fraction is eliminated immediately via the urine but eventually half of the radionuclide is eliminated via the feces

Special Precautions: Avoid glove and skin contamination or ensure that is promptly detected and removed.

CHROMIUM-51

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 27.7 days

Decay Mode: Electron Capture

Principal Emissions:

• Gamma
• X-Ray

X-ray energy: 0.005 MeV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Sodium Iodide (NaI) solid scintillation detector (Best Method)
• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter
• Geiger-Müller

• Oral ingestion = 1x10⁹Bq
• Inhalation = 7x10⁸Bq

Half Value Layer = 3 mm Lead
 
 

IRON-59

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 44.5 days

Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions: Beta; Gamma

Maximum Beta energies:

• 0.466 MeV (53%); 0.274 MeV (45%); others £0.131 MeV (2%)

• 1.1 MeV (57%); 1.3 MeV (43%)

• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter
• Sodium Iodide (NaI) solid scintillation or Geiger-Müller detector

Biological monitoring: Urine and feces analysis

ALI: Oral ingestion = 3x10⁷Bq

• Inhalation = 1x10⁷Bq

Shielding material: Lead; half value layer = 9.7 mm

Dosimetry: Fe-59 may present a significant externalexposure hazard.The lower large intestine is the critical organ for ingestion of Fe-59 compounds. The spleen and the lung are the critical organs for inhalationof soluble and insoluble Fe-59 compounds respectively. 1 or 2 % of an uptake is eliminated via the urine during the first 24 hours. The rest is eliminated via the feces with a half life of 700 days.

Special Precautions: Near an unshielded Fe-59 source, dose rates due to beta radiation can be much higher that dose rates due to gamma radiation. Avoid direct eye exposure by interposing transparent shields or indirect viewing. Avoid skin exposure by remote handling and prompt removal of contaminated clothing.

NICKEL-63

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 100 years

Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions: Beta

Maximum Beta energy: 0.067 MeV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

ALI:

• Oral ingestion = 3x10⁸Bq
• Inhalation = 7x10⁷Bq

Shielding material: Plexiglas

Dosimetry: Milicurie quantities of Ni-63 do not present a significant externalexposure hazard. The critical organ for Ni-63 uptake  is the bone. The elimination rate depends on the chemical form. A conservative biological half life is 667.
 

Special precautions: Many Ni-63 compounds cannot be detected with sufficient sensitivity by liquid scintillation counting of small volume of urine samples. If insoluble compounds are handled, 24-hour urine samples should be periodically and radiochemicallly analysed to ensure that contamination controls are adequate.

IODINE-125

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 59.4 days

Decay Mode: Electron Capture

Principal Emissions: Gamma; X-Ray

Gamma energy: 0.035 MeV (7% emitted, 93% internally converted)

X-ray energy: 0.027 to 0.032 MeV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Sodium Iodide (NaI) solid scintillation detector (Best Method)
• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter
• Geiger-Müller

ALI: Oral ingestion = 1x10⁶Bq (Thyroid)

• Inhalation = 2x10⁶Bq (Thyroid)

Special precautions: Store NaI-125 solutions at room temperature because freezing may result in subsequent volatilization of radioiodine. Some radioiodine compounds may penetrate gloves and skin. When handling these compounds use remote tools, wear two pairs of gloves and change the outer pair frequently or whenever suspected to be contaminated.

IODINE-131

Radioactive Half-Life [T_1/2] = 8.0 days

Decay Mode: Decay Mode: Beta - (100%) 

Principal Emissions: Beta; Gamma

Maximum Beta energies:

• 0.606 MeV (89.9%); 0.334 MeV (7.3%)
• others from 0.248 to 0.807 MeV (2.8%)

Gamma energies: 0.365 MeV (principal); 0.637 MeV

Appropriate method for contamination monitoring:

• Sodium Iodide (NaI) solid scintillation detector (Best Method)
• Geiger-Müller
• Swipes, using Liquid Scintillation Counter

ALI: Oral ingestion = 1x10⁶Bq (Thyroid)

• Inhalation = 2x10⁶Bq (Thyroid)

Dosimetry: Even small quantities of I-131 may present a significant externalexposure hazard. The critical organ for I-131 uptake   is the thyroid. Individual uptake and metabolism vary over a wide range. The thyroid may be assumed to accumulate 30% of the soluble iodine  and retain it with a biological half life of 138 days. The elimination takes place via urine.
 

Special precautions: Store NaI-131 solutions at room temperature because freezing may result in subsequent volatilization of radioiodine. Some radioiodine compounds may penetrate gloves and skin. When handling these compounds use remote tools, wear two pairs of gloves and change the outer pair frequently or whenever suspected to be contaminated.